Phosphorylation and ubiquitination of OsWRKY31 are integral to OsMKK10-2-mediated defense responses in rice.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MPK) cascades play vital roles in plant innate immunity, growth, and development. Here, we report that the rice (Oryza sativa) transcription factor gene OsWRKY31 is a key component in a MPK signaling pathway involved in plant disease resistance in rice. We found that the activation of OsMKK10-2 enhances resistance against the rice blast pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae and suppresses growth through an increase in jasmonic acid and salicylic acid accumulation and a decrease of indole-3-acetic acid levels. Knockout of OsWRKY31 compromises the defense responses mediated by OsMKK10-2. OsMKK10-2 and OsWRKY31 physically interact, and OsWRKY31 is phosphorylated by OsMPK3, OsMPK4, and OsMPK6. Phosphomimetic OsWRKY31 has elevated DNA-binding activity and confers enhanced resistance to M. oryzae. In addition, OsWRKY31 stability is regulated by phosphorylation and ubiquitination via RING-finger E3 ubiquitin ligases interacting with WRKY 1 (OsREIW1). Taken together, our findings indicate that modification of OsWRKY31 by phosphorylation and ubiquitination functions in the OsMKK10-2-mediated defense signaling pathway.

Input Digitization of the Manufacturing Industry and Carbon Emission Intensity Based on Testing the World and Developing Countries.

Facing the increasingly deteriorating climate, carbon emission reduction has become a global consensus. In particular, as an industry with very serious pollution emissions, the manufacturing industry is under enormous pressure to reduce environmental consumption. At the same time, against the background of rapid digitization development, the production and organization of the manufacturing industry have greatly changed, which also provides new research ideas for global carbon emission reduction. Based on the panel data of 40 major economies in the world, this paper calculates the degree of input digitization of the manufacturing industry using the input-output method and constructs a triple fixed effect model to analyze the impact of manufacturing's input digitization on its carbon emission intensity from the perspective of the world and developing countries. The research finds that, first, on the global level, input digitization significantly reduces the carbon emission intensity of manufacturing, and the effect of carbon reduction increases gradually over time, with a noticeable industry spillover effect. Second, the test results from developing countries show that the relationship between digital input from developed countries and manufacturing's carbon intensity in developing countries presents an inverted U shape. Third, heterogeneity analysis shows that digital input has the most obvious effect on carbon reduction in the pollution-intensive manufacturing sector. Tracking the sources of digital input, it is found that digital input from high-tech economies has the most obvious effect on carbon reduction. The paper takes the lead in clarifying the impact of digitization on carbon emissions from the manufacturing sector, expands the existing research on the digital economy and the environment, and also makes a theoretical contribution to global carbon emission reduction.